Socialism
It is a system of social organization in which private
property and the distribution of income
(розподіл доходів) are
subject to social control (є предметом громадського контролю); also, the political movements aimed at putting (з метою впровадити) that system
into practice. Because “social control” may be interpreted in widely diverging (відрізнятися) ways, socialism ranges from statist (коливається
від державницького до) to libertarian, from Marxist to liberal. The term was
first used to describe the doctrines (вчення) of Charles
Fourier (Шарль Фурье), Henri de
Saint-Simon, and Robert Owen, who emphasized noncoercive (примусовий) communities of people
working noncompetitively for the spiritual and physical well-being of all (see
utopian socialism).
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, seeing socialism as a
transition state between capitalism and communism, appropriated (виділяти) what they found
useful in socialist movements to develop their “scientific socialism.” In the
20th century, the Soviet Union
was the principal model of strictly centralized socialism, while Sweden and
Denmark were well-known for their noncommunist socialism.
Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez made a
"Socialism of the 21st Century" his political slogan and a political
program of socialist reform in Venezuela. Other socialist states
of the XXI century are: Cuba and North Korea.
Communism
It is a system in which goods are owned in common and
are available to all as needed.
Political theory advocating community ownership of all
property, the benefits of which are to be shared by all according to the needs
of each. The theory was principally the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Their “Communist Manifesto” (1848) further specified a “dictatorship of the
proletariat,” a transitional
stage (перехідному
етапі) Marx called socialism; communism was the final stage in which not only
class division but even the organized state—seen by Marx as inevitably (неминуче) an instrument of
oppression (пригноблення) — would be transcended (see Marxism).
That distinction was soon lost, and “communist” began
to apply to a specific party rather than a final goal. Vladimir Ilich Lenin maintained that the proletariat needed
professional revolutionaries to guide it (see Leninism).
Joseph Stalin's version of
communism (see Stalinism) was synonymous to many with totalitarianism.
Mao Zedong mobilized peasants (селяни) rather than an
urban proletariat in China's communist revolution (see Maoism).
European communism (see Eurocommunism) lost most of
its following with the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991).
Marxism
Ideology and socioeconomic theory developed by Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels. The fundamental ideology of communism, it holds that all people are entitled (давати право) to enjoy the fruits of their labour but are prevented
from doing so in a capitalist economic system, which divides society into two
classes: nonowning (які не володіють) workers and nonworking
owners. Marx called the resulting situation “alienation,” (відчуження) and he said that
when the workers repossessed
(повернуто) the fruits of
their labour, alienation would be overcome and class divisions would cease [sJs]
(припинятися).
The Marxist theory of history posits class struggle as
history's driving force, and it sees capitalism as the most recent and most
critical historical stage — most critical because at this stage the proletariat
will at last arise united.
The failure of the European Revolutions of 1848 and an increasing need to
elaborate on Marxist theory, whose orientation is more analytical than
practical, led to adaptations such as Leninism
and Maoism.
In the late 20th century the collapse of the Soviet
Union and its Eastern bloc allies seemed to mark the end of Soviet Marxism as a
practical political or economic model. Meanwhile, China adopted many elements
of a free-market economy in what it called a development rather than a repudiation (зречення) of Marxist
theory. In the West, Marxism continues to be appreciated as a critique of market capitalism (ринковий капіталізм) and a theory of historical
change.
Dictatorship
It is a form of government in which absolute power is
concentrated in a dictator or a small clique (угруповання).
It is a form of government in which one person or an
oligarchy possesses absolute power without effective constitutional checks (конституційні заборони). With constitutional democracy, it is one of the two chief forms
of government in use today.
Modern dictators usually use force or fraud (шахрайство)
to
gain (збільшення) power and then
keep it through intimidation (залякування, шантаж), terror, suppression of civil
liberties, and control of the mass media.
In 20th-century Latin America, nationalist leaders
often achieved power through the military and attempted either to maintain the
privileged elite or to institute far-reaching social reform, depending on their
class sympathies (уподобання).
In Europe's communist and fascist dictatorships, a charismatic leader of a mass party
used an official ideology to maintain his regime, and terror and propaganda to
suppress opposition. In postcolonial Africa and Asia, dictators have often retained (зберігати) power by
establishing one-party rule after a military takeover.
Сapitalism
Economic system in which most of the means of
production are privately owned, and production is guided and income distributed
largely through the operation of markets. Capitalism has been dominant in the
Western world since the end of mercantilism. It was fostered (сприяти) by the Reformation, which sanctioned hard work and
frugality, and by the rise of industry during the Industrial Revolution,
especially the English textile industry (16th–18th centuries).
Unlike earlier systems, capitalism used the excess of
production over consumption
(споживання) to enlarge
productive capacity
(потужність) rather than
investing it in economically unproductive enterprises such as palaces or
cathedrals. The strong national states of the mercantilist era provided the
social conditions, such as uniform monetary (грошовий) systems and legal codes, necessary for the rise of
capitalism. The ideology of classical capitalism was expressed in Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776), and
Smith's free-market theories were widely adopted in the 19th century. In the
20th century the Great Depression effectively ended laissez-faire (невтручання) economics in
most countries, but the demise
(передавати владу) of the state-run
command economies of eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union (see communism) and the adoption of some free-market principles in China left capitalism
unrivaled (неперевершений) (if not
untroubled) by the beginning of the 21st century.
Variants of CAPITALISM: capitalism or free-market economy or
free-enterprise system.
Fascism
Philosophy of government that stresses the primacy and
glory of the state, unquestioning obedience (покора) to its leader,
subordination of the individual will to the state's authority, and harsh (суворий) suppression of dissent (придушення
інакомислення). Martial virtues (військові достоїнства) are celebrated,
while liberal and democratic values are disparaged (принижувати).
Fascism arose during the 1920s and '30s partly out of
fear of the rising power of the working classes; it differed from contemporary (contemporary) communism (as
practiced under Joseph Stalin) by its protection of business and landowning elites
and its preservation
(збереження) of class systems.
The leaders of the fascist governments of Italy
(1922–43), Germany (1933–45), and Spain (1939–75)—Benito Mussolini, Adolf
Hitler, and Francisco Franco—were portrayed to their publics as embodiments (втілення) of the strength and resolve (вирішити) necessary to rescue their nations from political and economic chaos (хаос).
Japanese fascists (1936–45) fostered (сприяти) belief in the uniqueness of
the Japanese spirit and taught subordination to the state and personal
sacrifice.
Democracy
It is a government in which the supreme power is vested in (покладених на) the people and
exercised by them directly (as in some ancient Greek city-states, some New
England town meetings, and some cantons (область) in modern
Switzerland) or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving (за участю) periodically held free elections.
The concept of representative democracy arose largely
from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages and
the Enlightenment and in the American and French Revolutions.
Monarchy
Undivided sovereignty
(верховна влада) or rule by a single person, who is the permanent (незмінний) head of state.
The term is now used to refer to countries with hereditary (спадковий) sovereigns. The monarch was the ideal head of the new
nation-states of the 16th and 17th centuries; his powers were nearly unlimited (see absolutism), though in Britain Parliament was able to restrict (обмежувати) the sovereign's
freedom of action, particularly through the Magna Carta (a charter of liberties to which the English barons
forced King John to give his assent (згода) in
June 1215 at Runnymede, Surrey, England, 20 miles
(32 km) west of London) and the Bill of Rights
(1689, it is a summary of fundamental rights and privileges
guaranteed to a people against violation by the state —used especially of the
first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution).
The old idea that the monarch represented (within the limits (рамки) of his dominions (володіння)) the rule of God over all things culminated in the
17th century in the doctrine of the divine right (божественне право) of kings (see divine kingship), exemplified by Louis XIV. Monarchical absolutism adapted to the
Enlightenment by evolving
(перетворюється) into “benevolent (великодушний) despotism,” as typified by the rule of Catherine II of Russia. The
French Revolution dealt absolute monarchy a crushing blow, and World War I
effectively destroyed what remained of it, the rulers of Russia, Germany, and
Austria-Hungary being held responsible for the war and postwar misery (нужденність).
The institution developed into the constitutional
monarchy in western Europe, though absolute (or near-absolute) monarchies
continue to exist in the Middle East.
Current monarchies
Ø Commonwealth realms (Королівства Співдружності). The sixteen
Commonwealth realms (Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize (Белі́з (Belize bɛˈliːz, раніше Британський Гондурас) — країна в
Центральній Америці), Canada,
Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint
Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon
Islands, Tuvalu and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) all
share Queen Elizabeth II as monarch in a personal union arrangement.
Ø Other European
constitutional monarchies. Andorra,
Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Sweden are fully
democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial
role.
Ø European
Constitutional/Absolute Monarchies. Liechtenstein and Monaco are constitutional monarchies in which the
Prince retains many powers of an absolute monarch. For example the 2003
Constitution referendum which gives the Prince of Liechtenstein the power
to veto any law that the Landtag (Ландтаг — місцеві представницькі законодавчі органи, земельний парламент
у сучасних німецькомовних державах — Австрія, Ліхтенштейн, ФРН, а також у
німецькомовному анклаві Італії Південний Тіроль) proposes and the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass.
Ø Islamic
monarchies. These Islamic monarchs of
Bahrain, Brunei, Jordan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
and the United Arab Emirates generally retain far more powers than their
European or Commonwealth counterparts (колеги).
Ø East Asian
constitutional monarchies. Bhutan,
Cambodia, Japan, Thailand have constitutional monarchies where the monarch has
a limited or ceremonial role.
Ø Other
monarchies. Five monarchies do not fit
into one of the above groups by virtue of geography or class of monarchy: Tonga
and Samoa in Polynesia; Swaziland and Lesotho in Africa; and the Vatican City
in Europe. Of these, Lesotho and Tonga are constitutional monarchies, while
Swaziland and Vatican City are absolute monarchies.
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the
country is considered a "public matter" (Latin: res publica), not the
private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are
subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited.
In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the
head of state is not a monarch.
The political concept that the citizen should be
totally subject
(підвладний) to an absolute
state authority.
The term was coined (цей термін був придуманий) in the early 1920s by Benito
Mussolini, but totalitarianism has existed throughout history
throughout the world (e.g., Qin dynasty China). It is distinguished from dictatorship and authoritarianism by its supplanting (витіснення) of all political institutions and all old legal and
social traditions with new ones to meet the state's needs, which are usually
highly focused.
Conservatism
It is the tendency to prefer an existing or
traditional situation to change.
Political attitude or ideology denoting (що означають) a preference (перевага) for
institutions and practices that have evolved (еволюціонувати) historically
and are thus manifestations of continuity (безперервність) and stability.
It was first expressed in the modern era through the
works of Edmund Burke in
reaction to the French Revolution, which Burke believed tarnished (ганьбити) its ideals through its excesses (непоміркованість).
Conservatives believe that the implementation (реалізація) of change should
be minimal and gradual
(поступовий); they appreciate history and are more realistic than idealistic.
Well-known conservative
parties include the British Conservative Party, the German Christian
Democratic Union, the U.S. Republican Party, and the Japanese
Liberal-Democratic Party.
Liberalism
Political
and economic doctrine that emphasizes the rights and freedoms of the individual
and the need to limit the powers of government.
Liberalism
originated as a defensive (захисний) reaction to the horrors of the European wars of
religion of the 16th century (Thirty Years' War (1618–48)). Its basic ideas
were given formal expression in works by Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke,
both of whom argued that the power of
the sovereign is ultimately justified (влада суверена, кінець кінцем, виправдана) by the consent (дозвіл) of the governed, given in a hypothetical social
contract rather than by divine right (божественне право).
Contemporary
liberalism remains committed to social reform, including reducing inequality (зменшення нерівності) and expanding individual rights.
Federalism
Political system that binds (поєднувати) a group of states into a larger, noncentralized, superior (виборний, переважаючий) state while
allowing them to maintain (додержувати, додержувати) their own
political identities.
Certain characteristics
and principles are common to all successful federal systems:
·
a written
constitution or basic law stipulating (передбачають) the distribution (розподіл) of powers;
·
diffusion (росповсюдження) of power among the constituent
(складова) elements, which are substantially self-sustaining (самопідтримувані);
·
territorial
divisions to ensure neutrality
(неупередженість) and equality in the representation of various groups and interests.
Changes require the consent of those affected.
Successful federal systems also have a sense of common nationality and direct
lines of communication between the citizens and all the governments that serve
them.
Examples of modern federal systems include the U.S.,
Brazil, Germany, Russian Federation and Nigeria.
